ANDRODESCENT


By Stanford Field
Summer 2003

THE DISCOVERY OF TESTOSTERONE

The strong, healthy, vigorous, sexually-driven young man inevitably evolves into the aging old man whose characteristics include loss of sexual ability, loss of memory, loss of muscle mass, sagging skin, rising blood pressure, decreased energy, chronic illness, and a flabby appearance. These characteristics are related to a general decline in body systems (including androgenic hormones) and a rise in catabolism as one approaches the end of life. One can improve the quality of life during the decline by taking actions that are anabolic such as living in a low stress environment, practicing regular mild exercise and using testosterone to reinvigorate the body. What do we know about testosterone?

The story goes back to the ancient times in Rome, the Middle East, India and China when strong men were made into eunuchs by castration (cutting off the testicles - the medical term is "orchiectomy"). The eunuchs then could be trusted to protect the women in harems without the possibility of the eunuchs becoming sexually involved with the women. So, it was known from early times that male virility was associated with the testes.

In 1889 in France at age 72, a physician named Charles Brown-Sequard, a pioneer of endocrinology, injected ground-up dog testicles into himself and then reported sexual rejuvenation - although it was short-lived. Initially, other physicians laughed at his work. That was a normal response to the situation given the lack of knowledge of hormones and their physiology.

By the 1920s in America, it was discovered that the testes contained very little testosterone and that the production of testosterone was controlled by the brain. That knowledge provided the incentive for the chemical synthesis of testosterone. In 1935 in Zurich, a Yugoslavian chemist named Leopold Ruzicka synthesized testosterone from cholesterol. For that feat, he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

The pharmaceutical companies jumped on this one! They embarked on research to develop testosterone-related chemicals that had more powerful and enduring physiological effects than natural testosterone. Their main incentive for following that path has its roots in the U.S. patent system which says that you cannot patent a natural substance. Their research led to the development of anabolic steroids which were not natural (not identical to testosterone) but were decidedly patentable and therefore, potentially very profitable.

By the 1960s, the anabolic steroids (more potent variants of testosterone) were injected by body-builders, weight-lifters and other athletes at supraphysiological doses to induce a rapid anabolic response. The results were astounding in terms of achieving muscle mass and strength. However, the lack of endocrine knowledge at the time resulted in many cases of liver diseases (the liver was desperately trying to detoxify large doses of unnatural hormone-like chemicals to maintain balance), liver cancer and many deaths. That experience with "testosterone" provided a reinforcement to the fear by the medical practice that testosterone supplementation was extremely dangerous. Earlier (in 1941), it was found that orchiectomy slowed the progression of prostate cancer. Therefore, it was assumed that testosterone suppression had slowed the cancer and testosterone was to be feared. Those assumptions proved to be correct, and today (2003), an important part of prostate cancer protocol is to suppress testosterone. However, it is only in recent years that the causes of prostate, breast and endometrial cancers have been biochemically traced from testosterone to carcinogenic metabolites of estrogens which can be produced in the body from testosterone. Thus, an essential part of testosterone supplementation is the suppression of estrogens and their carcinogenic metabolites. To understand how to do that, it is first necessary to comprehend the related biochemical system.

RECENT ADVANCES IN THE BIOCHEMISTRY OF TESTOSTERONE METABOLISM


Testosterone can be converted to:

• Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by reduction catalyzed by the 5-alpha reductase enzyme.
• Androstenedione (Andro) by oxidation.
• Estradiol (E2) by oxidation and aromatization - catalyzed by the aromatase enzyme.
  

Androstenedione can be converted to:

• Testosterone (T) by reduction.
• Estrone (E1) by oxidation and aromatization - catalyzed by the aromatase enzyme.
  

Estradiol can be converted to:

• Estrone by oxidation.
• Estratriol (E3) by oxidation.
• 2-hydroxyestradiol (protective) by oxidation.
• 4-hydroxyestradiol (carcinogenic) by oxidation.
  

Estrone can be converted to:

• Estradiol by reduction.
• 2-hydroxyestrone (protective) by oxidation.
• 4-hydroxyestrone (carcinogenic) by oxidation.
• 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone (carcinogenic) by oxidation.
  

Estratriol (Estriol) can be converted to:

• 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone (carcinogenic) by oxidation. Conversely, 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone can be reduced to estratriol.

The advances in analytical capabilities have directed attention to the oxidized metabolites of the estrogens (E1, E2, and E3) as the sources of carcinogenic chemicals that lead to cancers of the breast, prostate, endometrium and probably others not yet known. Although unfavorable metabolic processes can convert testosterone to the estrogens and then to carcinogenic metabolites, testosterone itself has not been found to be carcinogenic. To the contrary, testosterone has been found to be protective against cancer. The case against testosterone is without understanding of how the past prejudices evolved and how androgenic steroid hormones are converted to estrogenic steroid hormones and their carcinogenic metabolites. Further complicating the understanding is the intake of environmental chemicals that mimic the estrogens and are carcinogenic.

MALE  ANDRODESCENT

Male aging is associated with a steady decline in " androgens (chief male hormones: testosterone, dihydrotestosterone [DHT], androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA]) and a slow steady rise in estrogens (all of these hormones are also in females at different concentrations). The physiological effects associated with male aging and accompanying changes in hormonal status include the following:

• Reduced libido
• Memory lapses and poor concentration
• Erectile dysfunction
• Heart disease
• Osteoporosis
• Prostate enlargement
• Muscle weakness
• Slower wound healing
• Fatiguing quicker
  

After the age of 50-60, men usually experience increased difficulty in urination because of an enlarging prostate gland which compresses the urethra (the tube leading from the urinary bladder through the penis to the exit of the body). The urine flow is restricted which results in urinary retention in the bladder, greater frequency of urination, hesitancy and dribbling. In addition, the enlarged prostate makes ejaculation difficult. 

There are two main concerns with testosterone supplementation: (1) will it cause the prostate to enlarge? and (2) will it cause cancer? At the moment, the first concern will be addressed. It is necessary to know what causes the prostate to enlarge, and we are faced with a classic dilemma because there are two theories.

BENIGN PROSTATE HYPERPLASIA (growth in number of cells) I HYPERTROPHY (growth in size of cells): (BPH)

The early theory of prostate enlargement holds that when testosterone enters the cells of the prostate, it is more than 95% converted by the enzyme 5-alpha reductase into the potent androgen, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) which binds to androgen receptors that stimulate the production of new prostate cells, while postponing the death of some older prostate cells. It is generally accepted that DHT is more potent than testosterone in promoting prostate growth. Normally, there is a balance between old cell death and new cell birth that keeps the prostate stable. This theory gave rise to the use of the pharmaceutical, Proscar (chemically "finasteride"), and the herbal Saw Palmetto berry extract to inhibit the 5-alpha reductase enzyme to slow DHT production.

However, it is still not clear whether DHT causes prostate enlargement because in teenagers and men below the age of 50, BPH rarely occurs despite high DHT levels in their prostates. This lack of a continuum forced researchers to seek answers other than the common concept. Their investigations led to estradiol which is relatively low in young people and progressively increases with age.

Prostate tissue obtained during surgical transurethral resection ("the TURP or roto-rooter" procedure to lessen the encroachment of the prostate on the ureter) of the prostates of men with BPH, was exposed to various combinations of hormones, drugs and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in the laboratory. The results clearly showed that BPH was associated with elevated estradiol, decreased androgens, and increased SHBG. However, DHT not only did not cause new prostate growth, but DHT inhibited it by blocking the binding of estradiol to SHBG. SHBG is a complex water-soluble protein that carries fat-soluble hormones (all androgens and estrogens are derived from fat-soluble cholesterol) in the water-soluble plasma of the bloodstream. So, there's more going on here than we know.

Subsequent prostate research found that estradiol attaches to SHBG that is already bound to the cell membrane. Thereafter, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is synthesized, and it is thought to cause proliferation of epithelial cells in the prostate. Furthermore, elevated IGF-1 may be a predictor of prostate cancer risk. In addition, environmental chemicals that mimic estradiol are known to increase SHBG, and it is likely that they are an important cause of the epidemic of prostate enlargement and prostate cancer.

So, it is clear that estradiol and other estrogens must be minimized to protect against prostate enlargement and prostate cancer, and at the same time, DHT must be minimized. The attempt to attain that balance is reflected in my saliva test data shown below:


Saliva Test Results (pg/ml)

	12/01	2/02*	12/02	4/03
Testosterone	3140	71	392	194
Estrogens	7	10	7	12
Dihydrotestosterone			78	15

* no testosterone supplementation

The test results show that the estrogens are relatively low and constant over a extremely wide range of testosterone, indicating that the aromatase inhibitors and antioxidants are quite effective in preventing the conversion of androgens to estrogens. The DHT data indicate that more 5-alpha reductase inhibition may be needed at the target range of 600-1200 pg/ml of testosterone. That range has been ascertained by trial and error based on the subjective differences that were felt in well-being, strength, energy and sexual function. Since estrogens are more dangerous than DHT, the balance that I prefer is to keep estrogens low, testosterone high and let DHT float within reason.

COMPREHENDING PARTS PER TRILLION

The preceding saliva tests gave results in "pg/ml." The "pg" is an abbreviation of "picograms" or trillionths of a gram. That amount is so small that it is difficult to comprehend. I don't know how the laboratory analyzes it. A pico-anything is 1 x10 ^-12

One way to get some idea of how small a trillionth is, is to make some ratios with things we can comprehend. Incidentally, the potency of steroid hormones at these infinitesimal concentrations explains how homeopathic medicines can be effective. The following are parts per trillion comparisons:

• One person in 160 world populations (1000 billion people)
• One second in 32,000 years
• One drop of liquid in 660 tank cars (a train 6 miles long)
• The distance light travels in 30 millionths of a second (6 miles) versus the distance traveled in one year (6 trillion miles)
• The diameter of a red blood cell (8 micrometers [8 millionths of a meter]) compared to the distance traveled on 1000 round-trips from the earth to the moon.
  

INHIBITING PROSTATE ENLARGEMENT

The primary strategy for minimizing prostate enlargement is to minimize estrogens. This is valid whether or not testosterone supplementation is used. Estrogens include all natural estrogenic hormones, herbs that are estrogenic and environmental chemicals that are estrogenic (found in herbicides, pesticides, heated plastics and plastic water bottles) Do not heat food in a microwave that is in contact with plastic. The estrogenic plasticizers will be driven into the food. The estrogenicity of herbs and chemicals are only slowly being discovered. Furthermore, inflammatory processes and the use of alcohol favor the formation of estrogens by aromatization. Keeping xenoestrogens out of the body and a regular detoxication program is a vital part of minimizing prostate enlargement and being healthy.

The primary strategy to minimize natural hormonal estrogens is to inhibit the the oxidation and aromatization of testosterone and androstenedione to estradiol and estrone, respectively, by the use of antioxidants and aromatase inhibitors.

Antioxidants:

• Vitamin E (alpha, beta, gamma, delta) and related tocotrienols are especially important because these antioxidants and steroid hormones are both fat-soluble.
• Coenzyme Q10 (fat-soluble)
• Carotenes (fat-soluble)
• Lycopene (fat-soluble)
• Lutein (fat-soluble)
• Alpha lipoic acid (fat and water-soluble)
• Vitamin C (water-soluble)
• Selenium (water-soluble)
• Green tea polyphenols (water-soluble)
• Glutathione blend (glutamic acid, cysteine, glycine)
• Grape seed and skin extract (proanthocyanidins)
• Megahydrin (concentrated source of electrons which are antioxidants)
• Electronegative water (a source of electrons)
  

The antioxidant defense system works as a network wherein there is a downward cascading of redox potential from harmful oxidants toward neutral molecules. That system requires a full array of antioxidants.

Aromatase Inhibitors:

• Anastrazole (brand name" Arimidex") is probably the #1 aromatase inhibitor
• Chrysin
• Stinging nettle root (Urtica Dioica) extract and pygeum synergistically inhibit the aromatase enzyme
• Saw palmetto berry extract
• Soy Isoflavones
• Zinc (take with copper at 20 Zn/1 Cu to balance)
  

 

THE POWER OF SOME KEY HERBS

• Stinging Nettle Root (Urtica Dioica)

• Estrogens attach to SHBG that is already bound to the prostate cell wall. Estradiol and estrogen mimics are capable of activating pathways that signal prostate cells to proliferate. Nettle root extract inhibits the binding of SHBG to prostate cell membranes. A constituent of nettle root extract has been identified as divanillyltetrahydrofuran which has a high binding affinity to SHBG which then prevents the SHBG from binding to the prostate cell wall.
• Other constituents of nettle root inhibit aromatase which reduces the conversion of androgens to estrogens.
• Nettle root is also an anti-inflammatory agent that will help reduce the swelling of prostatitis.
  

• . Saw Palmetto Berry
• Inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT via inhibition of the 5-alpha reductase enzyme.
• Blocks DHT from binding to prostate cells.
• Acts as an alpha-1 adrenergic receptor antagonist, thereby relieving urinary urgency by reducing sphincter smooth muscle contraction. The pharmaceutical drugs that have similar effects are Terazosin (Hytrin) and Tamsulosin (Flomax).
• Inhibits cyclo-oxygenase and lipoxygenase (enzymes that produce pro-inflammatory eicosanoids)

• Pygeum
• Reduces prostate inflammation by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase and lipoxygenase.
• Blocks DHT from binding to prostate cells.
• Inhibits protein kinase C which causes benign and malignant cells to proliferate.

• Soy Isoflavones
• Genistein (an isoflavone) inhibits protein kinase C which helps prevent cancer and slows the growth of some existing cancers.
• Inhibit aromatase enzyme.
• Occupy estrogen receptors and reduce the impact of excess estrogens and estrogen mimics in causing prostate cancer.

• Indole 3-Carbinol (1-3-C) or its dimer Di-indolylmethane (DIM) - found in cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and bok choy)  These chemicals and vegetables stimulate the liver to safely metabolize and excrete excess estrogens. They preferentially oxidize estrone to 2-hydroxyestrone (protective) and estradiol to 2-hydroxyestradiol (protective).

NATURAL PROGESTERONE

Progesterone is a strong inhibitor of the 5-alpha reductase enzyme. It should be used sparingly because too much inhibition of the conversion of testosterone to DHT will force the testosterone toward higher concentrations of estradiol. This is a tricky game, and the only way to play it, if you are supplementing with testosterone, is to get semi-annual saliva tests that measure testosterone, DHT, estrone, estradiol and estratriol. Thereafter, adjustments need to be made to find the balance that minimizes total estrogens.

Apoptosis (apo=off, ptosis=falling) is a genetically programmed process wherein cells self-destruct because they are not capable of living. For example, they may be too old, too toxic or overcome with cancer. A cell undergoing apoptosis will fragment into particles which are phagocytized by other cells to recover what is still useful. Cells in tissue cultures spontaneously undergo apoptosis after about 50 cell divisions (Hayflick limit). Dysregulation of apoptosis is associated with cancer, neurodegeneration, heart disease and other major diseases.

If a carcinogen is present in a cell and the bcl-2 gene is dominant, the cell is pushed to cancer. However, if the p-53 gene is dominant, gene repair occurs and cancer does not materialize even though the carcinogen is present. If the damage is too great to repair, p53 directs the damaged cell to commit suicide (apoptsosis). Current  research shows that estradiol upregulates (turns on) the bcl-2 cancer gene, and progesterone upregulates .the anti-cancer p-53 gene!

However, since progesterone is a 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, excess progesterone could cause the formation of estradiol. Thus, too much progesterone will be counterproductive. Trial and error applications of progesterone accompanied by saliva tests will help find the optimum balance condition. That condition is likely to change with age, toxic load, nutrient status and other factors that affect the body.

SURGICAL TREATMENT OF BPH

There are several ways to surgically treat an enlarged prostate. They are all aimed at reducing prostate overgrowth to allow a steady flow of urine. The oldest procedure is listed first and the newest last:

• Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP) An electrical cutting device removes enlarged prostate tissue one piece at a time, depositing it in the bladder for later excretion. This procedure requires general anesthesia and a 1-4 d hospital stay. It is not suitable for a prostate larger than 100cc.
• Transurethral Needle Ablation (TUNA) This procedure uses needles that emit low-level radio frequency energy to destroy and shrink enlarged prostate tissue. It is not suitable for prostates larger than 50cc. No hospital stay is required.
• Transurethral Microwave Thermal Therapy (Targus) This treatment uses microwave energy to generate heat which destroys prostate tissue. Cold water is used to protect the surrounding urethral tissue. It is not suitable for prostates larger than 50cc.
• Inerstitial Laser Coagulation. A fiber optic delivers low-power laser energy to coagulate and destroy enlarged prostate tissue. General or spinal anesthesia is required. No hospital stay is required. A catheter is needed for 1-2 weeks because of swelling caused by the procedure. Potential risks include painful urination, urinary tract infections, urinary retention, incontinence, and retrograde ejaculation.
• Photoselective Vaporization of the Prostate (PVP). A high-powered laser immediately vaporizes and completely removes enlarged prostate tissue. This procedure minimally penetrates the prostate tissue so that prostate swelling is minimized and recovery is quick and painless. There is no obstructive tissue left behind to impede the flow of urine. This procedure requires anesthesia, but there is no hospital stay.
  

DO NOT SUPPLEMENT WITH TESTOSTERONE IF CANCER ALREADY EXISTS

Most prostate cell lines need testosterone to proliferate. Therefore, a man with prostate cancer should not supplement with testosterone. To the contrary, testosterone must be kept as low as possible.

Furthermore, as cells accumulate carcinogens (cancer precursors) and they overwhelm the p53 gene's attempts at repair, cancer develops. The cells and the immune system initiate oxidation reactions aimed at cell death or suicide (apoptosis) to cut off the growth of cancer. Radiation treatments to kill cancer also rely on oxidation reactions.  However, it is possible that some antioxidants required for testosterone supplementation will interfere with the apoptotic process, causing the cells to live, and allowing the cancer to spread by using the resources of the cell.

BENEFITS OF EXTRA TESTOSTERONE

Testosterone is the premier anabolic hormone. It has the potential of producing diverse beneficial physiological effects in elderly men that essentially affect the entire body. Testosterone receptor sites are located throughout the body, especially in the heart and brain. The physiological effects of testosterone include the following:

• Enhances the feeling of well-being
• Enhances strength and energy
• Rebuilds aging muscles and bones
• Enhances sexual function and pleasure
• Protects the cardiovascular system
• Prevents degenerative diseases
• Maintains red blood cell mass
• Increases oxygen uptake
• Helps maintain a strong immune system
• Helps mental concentration
  

CORTISOL NULLIFIES TESTOSTERONE

Cortisol is a steroid hormone that governs catabolism (destructive) actions throughout the body. Testosterone is a steroid hormone that promotes anabolic (building) actions. Head-to-head, cortisol trumps testosterone. What controls cortisol? -- the reaction of the autonomic nervous system to acute and chronic stress.

The American lifestyle of frantic time schedules, sedentary work, fast food, bombardment with incessant junk-mail advertising, the booming sound of subliminal television advertising, annoying telephone marketing, loud rock music, the scary, chaotic driving accompanied by the threat of road rage, the daily pile of e-mail, the fast pace of news, the daily intake of toxic chemicals and the endless pursuit of pseudo-ego- enhancing material goods has created a general state of high chronic stress and accompanying high cortisol. This state of chronic stress is reflected in ill-mannered attitudes, the rising rates of obesity (cortisol makes you eat when you are nervous) and chronic diseases (cortisol shuts down the immune system) that pervade our society.

Those of us who do not want to be sucked into this societal whirlpool can seek the peace and serenity of nature, music, art, meditation, yoga-type stretching, reflection of life's accomplishments, contemplation of future achievements, and by being friendly, compassionate and understanding. The tranquility that comes with that path allows testosterone to work its magic and is linked with health as reflected in a strong immune system, lower blood pressure, slim appearance, and longer life.

CHRONIC STRESS induces the release of cortisol which inhibits the immune system, inhibits collagen synthesis, inhibits serotonin production which creates a dopaminergic dominance and causes insomnia, destroys neurons, and increases appetite to the extent that it results in obesity. Does that describe America at the beginning of the 21st century?

THE HYPERBOLIC DETOX CAPACITY USE CURVE

At any given time, the body has a certain capacity to detoxicate poisons. When more toxins enter the body than can be detoxicated, an accumulation of toxins occurs and the capacity used for detoxication rises. The greater the capacity that is used, the more severe is the state of sickness. Furthermore, sickness rises hyperbolically as capacity is used. The body is then sounding alarm bells. The more the disease is muted with drugs, the greater will be the alarm bells to get your attention. Chemical sensitivity, chronic fatigue, allergies, asthma, and poor libido become auto-immune diseases, diabetes, cancer and arteriosclerosis. When all of the detoxication capacity is used, the body is close to death.

A prerequisite for good health is the availability of a great deal of unused detoxication capacity. What can be done to keep detoxication capacity use low? One can do two basic things with respect to detoxication to improve health: (1) minimize the intake of toxics, and (2) increase the capacity to detoxicate.

Minimize intake of toxics: Some examples of under-appreciated sources of toxins are given below:

Pesticides are an important source of toxics. Americans dump more pesticides on their lawns than farmers use to grow food for the entire nation. The pesticides are tracked indoors where they accumulate in carpets. Babies, children, people and pets who are in contact with the carpets become toxified.  Symptoms of pesticide poisoning include: dark circles under the eyes, puffy bags below the eyes, depression, chronic fatigue, headaches, asthma, hay fever, coughing, recurrent ear infections, muscle aches, excessive thirst and hostility.

Rivers, lakes and ground water have become contaminated with a wide range of agricultural poisons. In addition to those poisons, drinking water now contains the multitude of drugs that people are ingesting and excreting.

Common sunscreens contain chemicals that mimic the effects of estrogens which can trigger abnormal growths, including melanoma (cancer).

Most fruits and vegetables are sprayed with pesticides.

The most common excitotoxins are monosodium glutamate (MSG - and many disguised names) and aspartame. When neurons are exposed to excitotoxins, they fire their impulses very rapidly until they are excited to death. Because of the built-in redundancy in the brain, neurological disease cannot be detected until 80-90 percent of the specific cells are dead. They cannot be regenerated.

Increase detoxication capacity:

Detoxication in the body takes place in two distinct phases. Phase I of the detoxication process takes lipophilic (fat-soluble) molecules and makes them water-soluble (polar). This task is effected by oxidoreductase enzymes that transfer electrons to and from fat-soluble toxins. The enzymes are collectively called the "cytochrome P450 enzyme system." They are typically found anchored to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulae and the mitochondria within cells. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are responsible for all molecules that require conversion to water-soluble forms including food-related toxins, most drugs, steroid hormones, neurotransmitters, eicosanoids, bile acids and caffeine.

The water-soluble molecules from Phase I detoxication are reacted with chemicals in the Phase II group that are catalyzed by Phase II enzymes called "transferases". The transfer reactions that occur in Phase II detoxication are typically referred to as "conjugation" reactions because of the joining together of Phase I-activated toxins and Phase II chemical groups. There are five basic types of conjugation reactions in Phase II. The biochemicals for these conjugation reactions can be supplemented to increase detoxication capacity. They are as follows:

• Sulfation - use glutathione ( a tripeptide consisting of glutamic acid, glycine and cysteine) and other sulfur sources such as methyl-sulfonyl-methane (MSM) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Glutathione is generally regarded as the most important thiol (--SH) in humans. Glutathione can cause cancer cell to redifferentiate to normal cells. Glutathione is a vital part of the chemotaxis process that allows the immune system phagocytes to recognize, engulf and digest pathogenic microorganisms, cellular debris and foreign particles. Mercury, lead (and maybe other toxic metals) are taken out of circulation by all sulfur compounds prior to excretion from the body.
• Methylation - Uses methyl groups from molecules such as dimethylglycine (DMG), trimethylglycine (TMG), trimethylaminoethanol (choline), dimethylaminoethanol (DMAE), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Methylation deficiency has been linked to schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, depression, cancers and general aging.
• Glucuronidation - uses glucuronic acid from a biochemical such as calcium-D-glucarate.
• Acetylation - Uses an acetyl group from a biochemical such as acetic acid (vinegar). The body produces acetyl groups (two carbon atoms) for the energy system and to make cholesterol and all steroid hormones.
• Acylation - Uses any of three amino acids (glycine, glutamine or taurine).
  

 

TOO LATE SCHMART is written by Stanford Field (BS chemical engineering, 1951) who has been avidly studying biochemistry and physiology, since 1993, with an aim of staying healthy despite the ever-increasing odds of age-related decline. This publication is written to the best of his ability, and it is intended to document any findings that may be useful to interested readers. The publication has neither profit nor political motives.

Summer 2003
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